The trade routes of metals

since 3000 BC · Caravan · Lapis lazuli

Badakhshan lapis lazuli to Egypt

Lapis lazuli was spread through the Ancient East and Egypt by the end of the 4th millennium BC. The Badakhshan mines, of which Sar-e-Sang is the best known, are widely held to be the only ancient source. Gerzean graves at Naqada held lapis, and one held a Mesopotamian cylinder seal.^1,2,3,4

Caravan routes across Iran and Mesopotamia are not detailed in the sources; Naqada shown for early Egyptian finds

Sar-e-Sang lapis lazuli mines

since 1400 BC · By sea · Copper

Cypriot copper to the Swiss plateau (c. 1400 BC)

Analysis of metal finds at Moriken-Wildegg points to copper matching the Solea ores of Cyprus around 1400 BC. The authors present it as new evidence for long-distance copper trade, not as proof of the route.^5,6,7

Mediterranean and Alpine routes not established; Skouriotissa is a display point for the Solea ores

since 1300 BC · By sea · Tin

Cornish tin to the Levant (Bronze Age)

Tin ingots from wrecks off Hishuley Carmel, Kfar Samir South and near Haifa match Cornwall and Devon ores in lead isotopes, trace elements and ore age. Dating of the Israeli ingots is given as 13th to 12th century BC in one study and about 1400 to 1300 BC in another. The start year uses the 13th century BC.^8,9,10,11

Atlantic and Mediterranean sea routes not identified; Camborne is a display point for Cornwall; Haifa for the Israeli wreck sites

1300 BC–1150 BC · Caravan · Copper

Arabah copper (Timna and Faynan) to Pi-Ramesses

Egypt controlled operations at Timna from the end of the 14th to the mid-12th century BCE. Some copper at Pi-Ramesses, capital of the 19th dynasty, has lead isotopes within the range of Faynan and Timna ores. The route is inferred; Faynan and Timna cannot be separated by the data.^12,13,14,15

Overland by desert and delta routes; Timna is shown for the Arabah copper district

Timna Valley

since 1046 BC · Caravan · Nephrite jade

Khotan jade to the Zhou heartland

A Western Zhou assemblage at Guanzhong (1046-771 BCE) held items of Khotanese nephrite. The Hanshu of the first century CE names Khotan as rich in jade and Yarkand for blue-green jade.^16,17,18

Caravan routes along the Tarim Basin; Xi'an is a proxy for the Guanzhong plain

Hotan

since 600 BC · By sea · Tin

Cornish tin to southern France (Iron Age)

Tin ingots from the Rochelongue wreck, dated about 600 BC, are consistent with Cornwall and Devon tin. The source treats the sea link between south-west Britain and the Mediterranean as likely but gives no route.^8,10,19

Atlantic and Mediterranean sea routes not identified; Agde shown for the Rochelongue wreck site

since 483 BC · By road · Silver

Laurion silver to Athens

Silver from the Lavrion mines in south-east Attica funded the Athenian fleet and the silver owl coinage. New lead isotope work dates the rich third contact to shortly before 483/2 BCE, when Lavrion silver became the bulk of supply. The road is assumed; the source gives no transport route.^20,21,22

Overland across Attica to the city, then to the port for coinage and shipbuilding

Laurion silver mines

since 0 · By sea · Tin

Bolivian tin from Antofagasta to Liverpool

Liverpool-based merchants arranged imports and resale of Bolivian ore, and in 1901 Penpoll built a Liverpool smelter solely for Bolivian material. The sources do not give shipping dates or tonnages for the sea leg.^23,24,25

Ore shipped round South America to British smelters; Liverpool merchants handled the ore

Antofagasta

since 0 · By sea · Silver

Arica to Callao silver

Silver from Arica, Potosi and Oruro was delivered to Callao, the port of Lima, under rules issued by the government of Peru under the Marquis of Montesclaros. A royal letter of 30 December 1607 set the calendar for deliveries. Start year of the leg is not given in the source.^26,27,28

Coastal shipping on the Pacific; deliveries followed a calendar fixed by royal letter of 30 December 1607

Callao

since 0 · By sea · Silver

Callao to Panama silver (Pacific leg)

From Callao the silver went by sea to Tierra Firme on the isthmus of Panama. The source names the region, not a port, so the Pacific terminus shown here is a display point.^26,28,29

Pacific sailing to Tierra Firme; Panama City is used as a display point for the Pacific end of the isthmus

Callao

since 0 · By sea · Tin

Dutch East Indies tin ore to Singapore

Singapore tin trade came increasingly from ore imported from elsewhere, particularly the Dutch East Indies. After 1939 ore was again sent to Singapore for smelting, and also to Penang for the first time.^30,31,32

Indonesia is a country display point for the tin islands

since 0 · By road · Cobalt

Congolese cobalt to China

Congo (Kinshasa) mined 230,000 t of cobalt in 2025 (contained metal, mine production, not export volume). Mine output was exported after processing into intermediates such as cobalt hydroxide, and China is the leading refiner and consumer (USGS).^33,34

230,000 t a year (2025)

Exported as hydroxide and other intermediates; transit ports are not named in the source

since 0 · By sea · Aluminium

Guinea bauxite to China

China imported 125 Mt of bauxite in 2022 and Guinea supplied 56 per cent of it (USGS). The 70 Mt figure is derived as 56 per cent of 125 Mt and is not stated in the source. Origin point is the Sangaredi mine area from the repo operations table.³⁵

70 Mt a year (2022)

Bulk carriers

since 0 · By sea · Silver, Gold

Havana to Seville silver (Bahamas channel)

From Havana the treasure fleet crossed the Atlantic through the Bahamas channel to Seville. Another source says most American silver went to Seville to fund the Spanish empire, and that about a third of the silver ended in China.^26,36,37,38

Atlantic crossing by way of the Bahamas channel; Spanish treasure fleet

Seville

since 0 · By sea · Copper

Cornish copper ore to Swansea

Copper smelting in Cornwall ended after 1819 and all Cornish copper was smelted in south Wales because shipping the ore to the coalfield made better commercial sense. Cobbed raw ore went first, later partly smelted regulus. Hayle had vital links with the Swansea smelters. The start year of shipments is not dated in the sources.^39,40,41,42

Sailing ships from Hayle across the Bristol Channel; barques returned with Welsh coal for Cornish steam engines

Swansea

since 0 · By sea · Aluminium

Indonesian bauxite to China

Indonesia mined about 30.4 Mt of bauxite in 2022 and exported about 19 Mt, all to China (USGS). Indonesia planned a bauxite export ban from mid-2023.⁴³

19 Mt a year (2022)

Bulk carriers

since 0 · By sea · Nitrate (saltpetre)

Chilean nitrate from Iquique to Europe

Chile exported 2,748,124 short tons of nitrate of soda in 1912 and 3,018,469 in 1913 from all ports (USGS). Welsh coal was the return cargo of nitrate ships. Shares by port are not in the source.^44,45

Sailing and steam ships; Welsh coal came back as return cargo; European ports not named

Iquique

since 0 · By rail · Copper

Katanga and Copperbelt copper via Rhodesia to Beira

One of the five export routes for Shaba traffic listed in 1979 ran south through Zambia and Rhodesia to Beira or Maputo. It was closed when the report was written, and transit used to take 15 to 25 days.^46,47,48

Zambia Railway, Rhodesia Railways and Mozambique railways; transit 15 to 25 days

Kolwezi

since 0 · By rail · Copper

Katanga copper via Lake Tanganyika to Dar es Salaam

The eastern route needed two transhipments and took 20 to 30 days from factory to quayside.^46,47,49

Rail to Kalemie, barge across Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma, Tanzania Railway to Dar es Salaam

Kolwezi · Dar es Salaam

0–1975 · By rail · Copper

Katanga copper via the Benguela Railway to Lobito

Benguela Railway construction began in 1903 to carry Katanga and Zambian ore to the Atlantic. Transit times were 10 to 13 days. The route was closed to Zairian traffic from August 1975. Opening dates differ across sources and no source opened here gives a reliable completion year.^{46,47,50,51,52}

Rail to Dilolo, then the Benguela Railway across Angola (1,344 km Lobito to Luau)

Kolwezi · Lobito

since 0 · By rail · Iron ore

Kiruna iron ore to Lulea (Iron Ore Line)

Ore also goes south by rail to Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia. The Gulf can freeze in winter, so Narvik takes more of the traffic then. Opening dates for the line differ in Wikidata and are not used.^53,54,55,56

Iron Ore Line; part of 500 km of electrified railway between Lulea and Narvik

Kiruna

since 0 · By sea · Silver

Manila to China silver

Of the American silver, most went to Seville but about a third reached China, according to the source (citing Folch 2013). Silver was worth far more against gold in China than in Mexico, which drew it east. Ports in China are not named.^36,57,58

Silver paid for Chinese silk and porcelain brought to Manila; China shown as a country display point

since 0 · By road · Silver

Mexico City to Acapulco (Pacific silver road)

The road from the capital to Acapulco supported the Asian trade. Acapulco was the port the Manila galleons left from and returned to.^59,60,61

Royal road to the Pacific port where the Manila galleons called

since 0 · By road · Silver

Mexico City to Veracruz (Atlantic silver road)

The earliest road ran from Veracruz on the Gulf coast to Mexico City. It served the European trade by sea to Cadiz and Seville. The source does not give silver tonnage for this road.^59,60,62

Earliest of the four royal roads leaving Mexico City

Veracruz

since 0 · Caravan · Silver

Panama City to Portobelo silver (Camino de Cruces)

The Camino de Cruces linked Panama overland to the Atlantic port of Portobelo. Spanish ships called at Portobelo with European goods and sailed back with South American gold and silver.^29,59,63

Overland across the isthmus on the Camino de Cruces, 16th and 17th centuries

since 0 · By sea · Iron ore

Pilbara iron ore from Cape Lambert to China

Cape Lambert shipped 159 Mt of iron ore in 2024-25 (down 6 per cent). China took 85 per cent of WA iron ore export value in the 12 months to September 2025.^64,65

159 Mt a year (2024)

Bulk carriers; the destination port is not named in the source

since 0 · By sea · Iron ore

Pilbara iron ore from Dampier to China

Dampier shipped 138 Mt of iron ore in 2024-25 (up 2 per cent). China took 85 per cent of WA iron ore export value in the 12 months to September 2025.^64,66

138 Mt a year (2024)

Bulk carriers; the destination port is not named in the source

Dampier

since 0 · By sea · Iron ore

Pilbara iron ore from Port Hedland to China

Port Hedland shipped 546 Mt of iron ore in 2024-25, 61 per cent of WA iron ore export volume. China took 85 per cent of the value of WA iron ore exports in the 12 months to September 2025. Australian iron ore exports to China were 746 Mt in 2022 (USGS).^64,67,68

546 Mt a year (2024)

Bulk carriers; the destination port is not named in the source

Port Hedland

since 0 · By sea · Silver, Gold

Portobelo to Havana silver (Tierra Firme fleet)

Treasure ships left Portobelo with South American silver and gold and gathered at Havana before the Atlantic crossing. Havana had to be reached before the end of summer because of hurricanes.^26,37,59,63

Caribbean sailing; ships had to reach Havana before the end of summer to avoid the hurricane season

since 0 · Caravan · Silver

Potosi silver to Arica (Ruta de la Plata)

Silver left Potosi by pack animal for the Pacific port of Arica. A scholar quoted by Correa Vera puts the journey at 10 to 12 days in good weather. Silver deliveries from Arica, Potosi and Oruro to Callao were later regulated by the colonial government of Peru.^26,27,69,70

Pack-animal caravans over the Andes; the road was called the Camino or Ruta de la Plata

Potosi

since 0 · By sea · Silver

Veracruz to Seville silver (New Spain fleet)

Mexico City road to Veracruz was built to support the European trade by sea to Cadiz and Seville. The caminos reales increased exports of ore to Spain and the coining of large amounts of currency.^38,59,62

Gulf of Mexico to Cadiz and Seville by the Atlantic trade route

Veracruz · Seville

since 0 · By sea · Lithium

Australian spodumene to China

Australia exported 2.7 Mt of spodumene ores and concentrates in 2022 (all destinations, USGS). China accounted for 99 per cent of Western Australia's lithium exports by value in 2023, which were A$18.4 billion (WA government profile).^68,71

2.7 Mt a year (2022)

Spodumene concentrate by sea

since 0 · By sea · Gold

Witwatersrand gold to London

Transvaal gold was shipped to London and sold in the bullion market. Rand mining firms built a London network for brokerage, insurance, refining and marketing, and sent gold to Europe for smelting, assaying, refining and sale. The study covers 1890-1914.^72,73,74

Shipped to London to be refined and sold in the City bullion market; the Bank of England sometimes held it first

Johannesburg

since 1545 · By sea · Silver

Potosi silver to Seville

UNESCO links the City of Potosi to the 16th-century influx of precious metals into Seville. Route stages and volumes are not recorded in this dataset.⁷⁵

Potosi · Seville

1550–1638 · By sea · Silver

Japanese silver to China

Japan was the main source of silver for China in the second half of the 16th century. The supply stopped when Japan closed itself to foreign trade in 1638, which left American silver as the main supply. The start year is an approximate reading of second half of the 16th century.^36,58,76

Japan shown as a country display point; ports not named

since 1550 · By road · Silver

Zacatecas to Mexico City silver (Camino de la Plata)

The first stretch of El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro carried silver from Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi and Guanajuato to the viceroyal capital. Development of the road began in 1550, four years after the Zacatecas silver vein was found.^60,77,78

El Camino de la Plata through Ojuelos, Dolores Hidalgo, San Miguel de Allende and Queretaro

Zacatecas

1565–1815 · By sea · Silver

Acapulco to Manila silver (Manila galleon)

Silver coin from Mexico bought Chinese silk and porcelain in Manila. An export quota limited Chinese goods sent to Mexico, starting at 250,000 pesos and rising to 300,000 (1702), 500,000 (1734) and 750,000 (1776). The end year follows the title of the standard study of the trade (La nao de China 1565-1815) cited by the source.^36,57,61

Trans-Pacific sailing, one or two ships a year, 1565 to 1815

since 1574 · Caravan · Mercury

Arica to Potosi mercury

The last stage of the mercury route carried quicksilver up from Arica to the Potosi refineries. The first Crown consignment in 1574 was 2,500 quintals (115 t). The land stage took at least 22 days.^27,70,79

Mule and llama trains; at least 22 days of marching

Potosi

since 1574 · By sea · Mercury

Chincha to Arica mercury

Toledo decided in 1574 that Huancavelica mercury would reach Potosi by a mixed sea and land route through Arica. The sea stage ran from Chincha to Arica. In 1608 about 1,500 quintals sat in the warehouses at Arica for lack of hide bags to carry them on.^27,79,80

Coastal ship on the Pacific; 1580 freight cost about 1 peso 4 tomines per quintal

since 1574 · Caravan · Mercury

Huancavelica to Chincha mercury

Mercury from Huancavelica was needed to amalgamate Potosi silver. From 1574 Viceroy Toledo had it sent to the coast at Chincha, shipped to Arica and carried on to Potosi. A mercury factor was appointed at Pisco on 17 July 1574 to oversee shipments.^79,80,81

Mule trains down to the coast; the 1,700 km trip to the Potosi mines was split into land and sea stages

Huancavelica

since 1825 · By sea · Copper

Chilean copper ore to Swansea

Raw copper shipments from Chile to Swansea began in 1825. British imports of Chilean ore grew from 1,670 t in 1834 to 19,829 t in 1843 and totalled 92,941 t over 1836-43. Chile sent 99.6 per cent of its copper ore to Britain in 1844 and 93.4 per cent in 1845, then local smelting grew. Volume is ore imported into Britain.^{42,82,83,84,85}

19,829 t a year (1843)

Sailing ships round Cape Horn; Coquimbo is a display point for the Coquimbo, Copiapo and Huasco ports

Swansea

1830–1870 · By sea · Copper

Swansea copper to world markets

Swansea smelters often made 40 per cent of world copper output between 1830 and 1870 and over half in the 19th century. The city depended on the sea both for ore imports and for exporting ingots. No destination port is named, so the end point has no coordinates.^42,84,86,87

Destinations are not named in the sources

Swansea

since 1849 · By sea · Gold

San Francisco to Panama gold (Pacific Mail steamers)

The first US contract mail service to California ran by steamer to Panama from 1849. The Winfield Scott left San Francisco for Panama on 1 December 1853 with US$1 million in gold and was wrecked the next night. Treasure sent to Panama in 1854-69 totalled US$9,053,526.^{29,88,89,90,91}

Pacific Mail steamers to Panama, mule or rail across the isthmus

San Francisco

1852–1855 · By sea · Gold

Victorian gold to London (gold ships)

In the peak years 1852-55 Victoria produced most of the worlds gold, and escorts carried about a tonne a week to Melbourne. The Madagascar sailed from Port Phillip in July 1853 with over 60,000 oz of gold dust for the Bank of England and was never seen again.^74,92,93,94

Fast clipper ships from Port Phillip to the Bank of England; gold escorts brought it to Melbourne

1854–1869 · By sea · Gold, Silver

San Francisco treasure to China

Treasure shipped from San Francisco to China in 1854-69 was worth US$68,050,250 over 16 years.^58,90,91

China is a country display point

San Francisco

1854–1869 · By sea · Gold, Silver

San Francisco treasure to eastern US ports

Treasure shipped from San Francisco to eastern ports in 1854-69 was worth US$462,088,066 in total, over 16 years. The source does not split it between New York and other ports. Treasure here means gold and silver.^89,90,91,95

Steamers by way of the isthmus of Panama; New York is a display point for the eastern ports

San Francisco

1854–1869 · By sea · Gold, Silver

San Francisco treasure to England

Treasure shipped from San Francisco to England in 1854-69 was worth US$167,703,292 over 16 years.^74,90,91

London is a display point for England

San Francisco

since 1873 · By sea · Nitrate (saltpetre)

Chilean nitrate from Antofagasta to Europe

The Antofagasta Nitrate Company built a first railway from El Carmen to the port of Antofagasta in 1873. Chile exported 2,035,707 short tons of nitrate in 1914 and 2,230,054 in 1915 from all ports (USGS), with Welsh coal as return cargo.^24,44,69

Railway from the salar El Carmen to Antofagasta (first line, 1873), then ship; European ports not named

Antofagasta

since 1892 · By rail · Tin

Bolivian tin from Oruro to Antofagasta (railway)

The railway from the Pacific coast reached Oruro in 1892 and cut the cost of exporting to Europe. Bolivian tin output rose from 3,749.5 t in 1887 to 9,279.5 t in 1899. The volume is Bolivian tin output, not recorded exports.^23,24,69,96

9,280 t a year (1899)

Antofagasta railway: Calama 1886, Oruro 1892, Uyuni link 1899

Oruro · Antofagasta

since 1897 · By sea · Gold

Klondike gold from St. Michael to Seattle (SS Portland, 1897)

The steamship Portland reached Seattle on 17 July 1897 from St. Michael, Alaska, with 68 miners and more than a ton of gold. The news set off the rush. Stampeders went the other way over the White Pass or Chilkoot Pass from Skagway and Dyea.^97,98,99,100

River steamers brought gold from Dawson City down the Yukon to St. Michael; ocean steamer to Seattle

since 1902 · By rail · Iron ore

Kiruna iron ore to Narvik (Ofoten Line)

Ore goes by rail to Narvik in Norway, an ice-free port. Narvik handles about two-thirds of LKAB exports and has a capacity of around 30 Mt a year. The Ofoten Line opened on 15 November 1902 (Wikidata).^53,55,101

Iron Ore Line and Ofoten Line; trains of 750 m

Kiruna

since 1903 · By sea · Tin

Malay States tin ore to Penang smelters

From 1903 an export duty levied in the Malay States indirectly protected the Straits tin smelters at Penang and Singapore against American competition. In 1922-31 Penang tin exports each year exceeded those of Singapore.^30,102,103

Kuala Lumpur is a display point for the Malay States tin fields; a discriminatory export duty from 1903 favoured Straits smelters

Kuala Lumpur

since 1911 · By sea · Copper

Katanga copper ore to Belgium

Katanga production began in 1911. At first the hand-mined ore was shipped to Belgium for processing because there were few surface plants. In peacetime Union Minière output first met Belgian demand and the rest was sold on the London market.^104,105,106

Lubumbashi is a display point for Katanga; Belgium is a country display point

Lubumbashi

1913–2005 · By rail · Tin

La Paz to Arica railway (Bolivian minerals)

The 1904 peace treaty obliged Chile to build a railway for Bolivian foreign trade. It was handed over on 13 May 1913 and ran until 2005. Bolivian mineral exports grew after the treaty.^{27,69,107,108}

Arica-La Paz railway, 267 miles with a rack section to about 4,250 m

since 1939 · By sea · Iron ore

Swedish iron ore to Germany in the Second World War

Under the 1939 trade agreement Sweden sent about 10 Mt of iron ore a year to Germany. In 1943 exports to Germany were 10,085,817 metric tons and shipments through Narvik rose about 70 per cent on 1942. The end year is not stated in the source.^54,55,109

10,085,817 t a year (1943)

Rail to Narvik and Lulea, then ship; Germany is a country display point

Kiruna

since 1940 · By air · Gold

Kolyma gold flown to Khabarovsk

Dalstroi gold output was 80 t in 1940 and 70.5 t in 1944. During the 1944 visit by Henry Wallace the washed gold was flown out twice a week to Novosibirsk or Khabarovsk. The start year is the 1940 production peak. The volume is production, not freight.^110,111,112

70.5 t gold produced by Dalstroi a year (1944)

Cargo planes twice a week; 75 boxes of 25 kg, about 1.9 t a flight; Kolyma River is a display point for the goldfields

since 1940 · By air · Gold

Kolyma gold flown to Novosibirsk

The second air destination for gold from the Dalstroi mines in 1944. The source does not say how often each city was used.^110,111,113

Cargo planes twice a week; gold went to Novosibirsk or Khabarovsk

1940–1942 · By sea · Uranium

Shinkolobwe uranium ore to New York (Staten Island)

In 1940 Edgar Sengier sent about 1,200 tons of Shinkolobwe ore to the United States to keep it from Germany. It was stored in drums on Staten Island. In 1942 Colonel Nichols bought it, plus about 3,000 tons still in the Congo. Shinkolobwe gave two-thirds of the uranium used in the Manhattan Project.^{114,115,116,117,118}

1,200 tons (short or metric not stated) a year (1940)

Shipped across the Atlantic in 1940; ports of departure and arrival are not named in the sources

Shinkolobwe

since 1969 · By rail · Iron ore

Mount Whaleback iron ore to Port Hedland (Mount Newman railway)

The railway was built in 21 months from 1968 and the Mt Newman project was officially opened on 26 June 1969. Ore goes to Nelson Point at Port Hedland for export. Trains weigh 25,000 t or more.^{119,120,121,122}

426 km single-track standard gauge railway; trains up to 2.7 km long

Port Hedland

since 1976 · By rail · Copper

Zambian copper via TAZARA to Dar es Salaam

After Rhodesia declared independence in 1965 Zambia needed an outlet for copper, which was 97 per cent of its foreign exchange in 1969. China agreed to fund the US$415 million line in 1967. Copper moved by road more after the 1992-2000 privatisation of the mines.^{49,123,124,125}

TAZARA railway, about 1,860 km; built 1970-75 and commissioned in July 1976

Dar es Salaam