World mine output was about 290 kt of contained lithium in 2025, led by Australia (92 kt, hard-rock spodumene), China (62 kt) and Chile (56 kt, brine), with Zimbabwe (28 kt) and Argentina (23 kt) growing fastest. Reserves are about 37 Mt, largest in Chile and Australia. Mining is moderately concentrated (top three about 72%), but chemical refining is far tighter: the IEA puts the top three refiners at 95% of 2025 supply, with China dominant.
IEA demand was about 275 kt Li in 2025, up from 103 kt in 2021. In its Stated Policies scenario demand reaches about 476 kt in 2030 and 932 kt in 2040; the High Demand case is roughly 1.2 Mt by 2040. Electric vehicles and battery storage drive almost all of the growth.
Listed as critical by the EU (also strategic, battery grade), US, UK, Canada, Australia, India, Korea and China. Zimbabwe banned raw lithium ore exports in 2022 and has signalled a concentrate ban; Argentina's provinces and Chile's state-led model shape access to brine.
From the USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries
US production and use
Commercial-scale lithium production in the United States was from a continental brine operation in Nevada. Two companies produced a wide range of downstream lithium compounds in the United States from domestic or imported lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide. Domestic production data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Although lithium uses vary by location, global end uses were estimated as follows: batteries, 88%; ceramics and glass, 4%; lubricating greases, 2%; air treatment, 1%; continuous casting mold flux powders, 1%; medical, 1%; and other uses, 3%. Lithium consumption for batteries increased significantly owing to the use of rechargeable lithium batteries in the growing market for electric vehicles (EVs), energy grid storage applications, portable electronic devices, and electric tools. Lithium minerals were used directly as mineral concentrates in ceramics and glass applications.
Events, trends and issues
Excluding U.S. production, worldwide lithium production in 2025 increased by 31% to approximately 290,000 tons from 222,000 tons in 2024 in response to strong demand from the lithium-ion battery market, high lithium prices from 2021 to early 2023, and an increase in global lithium production capacity. Global consumption of lithium in 2025 was estimated to be 263,000 tons, a 20% increase from consumption of 220,000 tons in 2024. Concern about a short-term lithium oversupply kept prices low during the first half of 2025. However, considerable EV sales growth in China and Europe and increased demand for battery energy storage systems contributed to lithium price increases during the second half of 2025. Spot lithium carbonate prices in China [cost, insurance, and freight (c.i.f.)] increased from approximately $9,300 per ton in January to approximately $10,300 per ton in November. For fixed contracts, the annual average U.S. lithium carbonate price was $9,000 per ton in 2025, a decrease of 31% from that in 2024. Spot lithium hydroxide prices in China [free on board (f.o.b.)] increased from approximately $10,300 per ton in January to approximately $11,200 per ton in November. Spodumene (6% lithium oxide) prices in Australia (f.o.b.) increased from approximately $800 per ton in January to approximately $970 per ton in November. Four brine operations in Argentina, seven mineral operations in Australia, one mineral operation in Brazil, two mineral operations in Canada, two brine operations Chile, nine mineral and six brine operations in China, two mineral operations in Mali, and five mineral operations in Zimbabwe accounted for the majority of world lithium production. Additionally, smaller operations in Argentina, Brazil, China, Portugal, and the United States also contributed to world lithium production. Namibia temporarily removed from mine production owing to legal uncertainties. Despite some lithium producers reducing output or expansion projects being postponed in 2025 owing to low prices, significant production capacity expansions took place in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Mali, the United States, and Zimbabwe. Lithium supply security has become a priority for technology companies in Asia, Europe, and North America. Strategic alliances and joint ventures among technology companies and exploration companies continued to be established to ensure a reliable, diversified supply of lithium for battery suppliers and vehicle manufacturers. Brine-based lithium sources were in various stages of development or exploration in Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Chile, China, and the United States; mineral-based lithium sources were in various stages of development or exploration in Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Congo (Kinshasa), Czechia, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Mali, Namibia, Nigeria, Peru, Portugal, Russia, Rwanda, Serbia, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe; lithium-clay sources were in various stages of development or exploration in Mexico and the United States.
Substitutes
Substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass. Examples are calcium, magnesium, mercury, and zinc as anode material in primary batteries; calcium and aluminum soaps as substitutes for stearates in greases; and sodic and potassic fluxes in ceramics and glass manufacture.
Recycling
Construction of lithium battery recycling plants continued throughout 2025. Automobile companies and battery recyclers partnered to supply the automobile industry with a source of battery materials.
World resources
Owing to continuing exploration, measured and indicated lithium resources have increased substantially worldwide and total about 150 million tons. Measured and indicated lithium resources in the United States—from continental brines, claystone, geothermal brines, hectorite, oilfield brines, and pegmatites—are 30 million tons. Measured and indicated lithium resources in other countries have been revised to 120 million tons. Resources are distributed as follows: Argentina, 28 million tons; Bolivia, 23 million tons; Chile, 13 million tons; Australia, 10 million tons; China, 10 million tons; Germany, 8.9 million tons; Canada, 8.1 million tons; Congo (Kinshasa), 3 million tons; Mexico, 1.7 million tons; Brazil, 1.4 million tons; Czechia, 1.3 million tons; Mali, 1.2 million tons; Serbia, 1.2 million tons; France, 1 million tons; Peru, 1 million tons; Russia, 1 million tons; Zimbabwe, 860,000 tons; Spain, 320,000 tons; Portugal, 260,000 tons; Namibia, 230,000 tons; Ghana, 200,000 tons; United Kingdom, 61,000 tons; Austria, 60,000 tons; Finland, 55,000 tons; and Kazakhstan, 45,000 tons.
